China's ban on exports of gallium and germanium strengthens its influence

Beijing monopolists "turn off the taps"

China dominates the supply of key minerals used in computer chips, military equipment, and renewable energy, which are all crucial sectors of the US and the EU. What will the United States do if it loses Chinese supplies, Jorge Valverde wondered in an article for Asia Times.

Amid growing tensions between the two countries, Beijing recently banned exports of gallium and germanium minerals to the US. These minerals have a very high economic value as they are used in computer chips, in military equipment such as night vision devices, and in renewable energy, for example, in electric cars and solar panels^[1].

China greatly impacts supply, being the source of 98% of primary gallium and 91% of primary germanium.

"Primary" refers to raw materials such as mineral ore. There is no substitute in some sectors where these minerals are used.

The ban on exports of gallium and germanium to the United States is based on the minerals' "dual military and civilian use", Beijing explained. This follows Washington's third attack on China's semiconductor sector in the last three years. The US wants to restrict exports of advanced chips to China that could be used in programs that threaten American security. For example, advanced chips could be used in electronic warfare using artificial intelligence or in modern weapons systems such as hypersonic missiles.

According to Reuters, in 2023, the US Department of Defence had a strategic reserve of germanium but no stockpile of gallium. In October 2024, the United States Geological Survey estimated that a complete ban on gallium and germanium exports could reduce US GDP by $3.4 billion. USD 3.4 billion.

The use of these minerals goes well beyond the limits of national security. Gallium is used in lighting devices, including light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Germanium is used in optical fibers and as a catalyst to accelerate reactions in the production of polyester and bioplastics. Minerals are vital in producing electronic devices that modern society has come to depend on - such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops.

What can the United States do?

The first option is to renew and expand domestic production of these minerals. The Pentagon has already made it clear that such options are being analyzed. There is indeed only one known site in the United States where both gallium and germanium have been mined: the Apex mine in Utah. These minerals were mined there in the mid-1980s, but the mine was closed.

The second option is to diversify the primary production of these minerals by investing in zinc, coal and bauxite plants in friendly countries. In Canada, President-elect Donald Trump has proposed becoming a US state, Teck Resources is the largest supplier of germanium in North America, sourcing the mineral from its Trail steel mill in British Columbia.

A third option is to increase production from so-called secondary sources, i.e. recycling old electronic devices and other equipment that have reached the end of their useful life. There are no official statistics on secondary supplies, but according to some reports, no more than 10% of the total gallium and 30% of the germanium comes from secondary sources.

Increasing the secondary production of these minerals is also problematic. The recovery process through recycling is very complex, as minerals in equipment such as computer chips are usually combined with other materials, making them difficult to separate.

The Chinese ban has, therefore, significantly disrupted the supply chain for these minerals.

In the short term, the reduction in primary supply cannot be compensated for by secondary supply (recycling) as the recovery rate is still low and the price is not competitive. In the longer term, technological progress could reduce the recovery process cost and increase supply, thereby reducing dependence on Chinese mineral ores.

What are the "miracle" minerals, gallium and germanium?

Gallium (from the Latin name Gallia, from the discoverer's homeland of France), Ga, a chemical element of Group III A of the periodic table. A silvery-white, shiny, soft metal. In air it forms a durable oxide film. Chemical properties are similar to aluminum. At temperatures above 260 °C dry oxygen can oxidise to the oxide Ga2O3. Gallium interacts directly with halogens and sulphur. When slowly dissolved in sulphuric and hydrochloric acids it forms the chloride GaCl3 and the sulphate Ga2(SO4)3, and in hot alkaline solutions the amphoteric hydroxide Ga(OH)3. It is found in the gallium mineral CuGaS2 and in smaller amounts in bauxite and other aluminum, zinc, and germanium minerals. Gallium is obtained by producing aluminum from bauxite and purifying by electrolysis. Gallium nitride GaN, phosphide GaP and arsenide GaAs are semiconductors.

Gallium is used in the manufacture of high-temperature thermometers and reflection mirrors. Low melting point gallium alloys (liquid) are used as coolants in nuclear reactors and as fuses for electricity. Intermetallic gallium compounds are semiconductors and catalysts.

Gallium was discovered in 1875 by Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran (France) and was the first of the elements predicted by Mendeleev in 1870.

germãnis (Germanium; from the German Latin name Germania), Ge, a chemical element of group IV A of the periodic table. A grey-coloured, metallic-looking semimetal. Brittle, becoming plastic at temperatures above 550 °C. The crystalline lattice is cubic on the centered surface. Resistant at room temperature to air, oxygen, water, dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric (sulfate of soda) acids, and alkali solutions. Reacts with nitric (nitrate) acid to form a GeO2 film on the oxide surface and with halogens to form the corresponding halides. More electrically positive metals form germanides (e.g. FeGe, Cu3Ge, MnAlGe). Important germanium compounds are the tetrahalides (GeCl4, GeF4 and others), which are commonly used to produce other germanium compounds, and the oxides (GeO2 and GeO), which are used to produce special glasses, enamels and glazes. In nature, germanium is a dispersed element (no minerals are present); it is mostly found in compounds with other chemical elements. The most important minerals containing germanium are germanite Cu3(Ge, Fe)(S, As)4, rheniferite Cu3(Ge, Fe)S4 and argyrodite Ag8GeS6. Germanium is extracted as a by-product of the processing of non-ferrous metal ores, i.e. from coal ash.

High-purity germanium single crystals are semiconductors used to make diodes, transistors, photodiodes, and Hall sensors. Alloys of germanium with gold are used in jewelry and dental applications, and alloys with silicon and boron as thermoelectric materials. Poisonous. Concentration limit value (long-term exposure) in the working environment air 2 mg/m3. Germanium was discovered in 1886 by C.A. Winkler.